Stable Gene Transfer to Proliferating Cells

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are methods for facilitating or inducing stable transgene integration and expression in a proliferating cell, comprising administering to the cell (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising the transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions, and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell. Also provided are methods and transgene delivery systems for the treatment or prevention of diseases affecting, associated with or characterised by proliferating cells, including paediatric liver diseases, bone marrow diseases and cancer.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates generally to methods for stably integrating and expressing transgenes in proliferating cells. The invention also relates to methods and vector systems for the treatment of genetic diseases associated with, or affecting, proliferating cells, organs or tissues.

BACKGROUND ART

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is a parvovirus having a single-stranded DNA genome. The AAV genome is relatively simple, containing two open reading frames (ORFs) flanked by short inverted terminal repeats (ITRs). The ITRs contain, inter alia, cis-acting sequences required for virus replication, rescue, packaging and integration. The integration function of the ITR permits the AAV genome to integrate into a cellular chromosome after infection.

Recombinant AAV vectors have been shown to be able to transduce a wide range of different cell types, such as hematopoietic cells, epithelial cells and neurons. Interest in AAVs as vectors for gene therapy results from several advantageous features of their biology. These include their ability to transduce non-dividing and dividing cells, their capacity for stable genetic transformation, and the fact that AAVs do not cause disease (and low immunogenicity) in humans. The integration of AAV vectors into the genome of target cells enables long term transgene expression in transduced cells. At least twelve different AAV serotypes have been identified and well characterized, including AAV2 and AAV8, the most widely employed in constructing recombinant AAV vectors for gene transfer and gene therapy applications.

Notwithstanding the attractive aspects of AAV-based vectors, a significant challenge, as yet not overcome, to their widespread use is maintaining stable levels of therapeutically effective transgene expression in proliferating cells such as in the juvenile liver and in bone marrow. For example, despite high efficiency of transduction of neonatal mouse hepatocytes by recombinant AAV vectors, episomal vectors are rapidly lost and eliminated within 2 weeks, and stable transgene expression is observed in only a very small proportion (about 5-10%) of cells (Cunningham et al., 2008, Molecular Therapy 16:1081-1088). This significantly hampers the further development of AAV-based gene therapy approaches to the treatment of, for example, genetic liver diseases, and in particular paediatric liver diseases.

There remains a need for vector systems and methods to increase stable transgene expression in proliferating cells to therapeutically effective levels so as to enable the development of gene therapy approaches to treating diseases associated with cellular proliferation such as cancer, and diseases affecting proliferating cells, organs and tissues, such as paediatric liver diseases.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to a first aspect the present invention provides a method for facilitating or inducing stable transgene expression in a proliferating cell, the method comprising administering to the cell: (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising the transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell.

Typically the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell in accordance with the present method facilitates or induces the stable transgene expression.

A second aspect of the invention provides a method for stably integrating a transgene into the genome of a proliferating cell, the method comprising administering to the cell: (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising the transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell.

Typically the stable integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell facilitates or induces the stable expression of the transgene in the cell.

The method of the first or second aspect may be employed to treat or prevent a disease in a subject, wherein the stable genomic integration and expression of the transgene is desired and beneficial in the treatment or prevention of the disease. Typically the disease is a disease affecting, or associated with, proliferating cells.

Typically the disease is a genetic disease. The disease may be associated with the deficiency of one or more gene products in the proliferating cell, typically wherein expression of the transgene normalises production and activity of the deficient gene product. In one embodiment the disease may be a paediatric liver disease. The paediatric liver disease may be selected from OTC deficiency, ASS deficiency and progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis. The progressive intrahepatic cholestasis may be progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 3. In alternative embodiments, the disease may be cancer or a bone marrow disease.

In an embodiment, wherein the disease is OTC deficiency, the transgene typically comprises a polynucleotide encoding ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC). In an embodiment, wherein the disease is ASS deficiency, the transgene typically comprises a polynucleotide encoding argininosuccinate synthetase (ASS). In an embodiment, wherein the disease is progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 3, the transgene typically comprises a polynucleotide encoding ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 4 (ABCB4).

A third aspect of the invention provides a method for treating or preventing a disease of, affecting, or associated with, a proliferating cell, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising a transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell, wherein said administration results in the stable integration and expression of the transgene to thereby treat the disease.

A fourth aspect of the invention provides a transgene delivery and expression system for inducing stable transgene expression in a proliferating cell, wherein the system comprises (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising the transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell.

A fifth aspect of the invention provides a transgene delivery and expression system for treating or preventing a disease of, affecting, or associated with, a proliferating cell, wherein the system comprises (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising the transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell.

A sixth aspect of the invention provides the use of (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising a transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of a proliferating cell, in the manufacture of a medicament for inducing stable transgene expression in a proliferating cell.

A seventh aspect of the invention provides the use of (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising a transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of a proliferating cell, in the manufacture of a medicament for treating or preventing a disease of, affecting, or associated with, a proliferating cell.

In accordance with the above aspects, typically the disease is a genetic disease. The disease may be associated with the deficiency of one or more gene products in the proliferating cell, typically wherein expression of the transgene normalises production and activity of the deficient gene product. In one embodiment the disease may be a paediatric liver disease. The paediatric liver disease may be selected from OTC deficiency, ASS deficiency and progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis. The progressive intrahepatic cholestasis may be progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 3. In alternative embodiments, the disease may be cancer or a bone marrow disease.

In an embodiment, wherein the disease is OTC deficiency, the transgene typically comprises a polynucleotide encoding ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC). In an embodiment, wherein the disease is ASS deficiency, the transgene typically comprises a polynucleotide encoding argininosuccinate synthetase (ASS). In an embodiment, wherein the disease is progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 3, the transgene typically comprises a polynucleotide encoding ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 4 (ABCB4).

The embodiments and associated disclosure below relate to each of the aspects described above.

The transgene may be any gene the expression of which it is desirable to induce in the proliferating cell. The transgene may be foreign to the proliferating cell. The transgene may be a gene the expression of which is absent or reduced in the proliferating cell in the absence of introduction of the transgene.

In an embodiment the transgene and flanking transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences form a transposon-transgene cassette, optionally comprising one or more further sequences or genetic elements including, for example, a promoter, enhancer, post-regulatory element and/or polyadenylation signal sequence. The cassette may be packaged in a suitable AAV capsid.

Typically the transgene is operably linked to a suitable promoter. The promoter may be a tissue-specific promoter. In an embodiment the promoter is a liver-specific promoter. In an exemplary embodiment the liver-specific promoter is the human alpha-1 antitrypsin promoter.

The transposase is provided to the proliferating cell in any form that allows transient expression of the transposase in the cell. Typically the transposase is administered to the proliferating cell in the form of a polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the transposase. The polynucleotide may be a gene or mRNA. In a particular embodiment, the transposase is provided to the proliferating cell using a second rAAV vector comprising a polynucleotide encoding the transposase, optionally operably linked to a suitable promoter, and optionally flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions. The promoter may be a tissue-specific promoter. In an embodiment the promoter is a liver-specific promoter. In an exemplary embodiment the liver-specific promoter is the human alpha-1 antitrypsin promoter.

In particular embodiments the AAV sequences used in the rAAV vectors may be derived from AAV2 and/or AAV8. Where the vector genome is encapsidated, any capsid capable of encapsidating an AAV genome may be employed.

In an exemplary embodiment the transposase is the piggyBac transposase, and the transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences are derived from the piggyBac transposon.

The proliferating cell may be a rapidly proliferating cell. In particular embodiments, the cell is a hepatocyte from a neonatal or juvenile liver or a bone marrow cell. The proliferating cell may be a disease cell, such as a cancer cell.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments of the invention are described herein, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1. Vector constructs. A. PiggyBac transposase vector. B. EGFP reporter vector with either the full length (TRSI, TRSII) or short (I, black box; II, dark gray) piggyBac terminal resolution sites (TRS). C. Transposon-donor plasmids expressing either murine OTC, murine ASS or human ABCB4. LSP1, liver specific ApoE/hAAT enhancer/promoter; LP1*, shortened version of LSP1; ITR, AAV2 inverted terminal repeat regions; PRE, post-transcriptional regulatory element; pA, polyadenylation signal. Component nucleotide sequences are defined in Table 1 and sequences are provided in SEQ ID Nos:1 to 18 of the Sequence Listing. Vector construct sequences are further described in Example 1 and sequences provided in SEQ ID Nos:19 to 23 of the Sequence Listing.

FIG. 2. Experimental design for testing transposon-donor transgene vectors encoding EGFP with either full length or short transposase recognition sites (TRS).

FIG. 3. A. Representative images of liver sections showing widespread and numerous EGFP-positive hepatocytes following concomitant delivery of rAAV-encoded transposase to the newborn (1-2 days) mouse liver compared with EGFP transposon vector alone. Scale bar=50 μm. B. Fluorometric analysis of liver lysates showing higher levels of EGFP expression in 4 week old mice receiving transposon-encoded EGFP in the presence of piggyBac transposase (n=4) than transposon alone (n=4). C. Quantitation of vector genome (vg) copy number per diploid liver cell at 4 weeks of age with transposon-encoded EGFP (full length TRS vector) in the presence of piggyBac transposase. D. Relative EGPF mRNA and E. protein expression per vector genome (vg) copy number (arbitrary units) at 4 weeks of age with transposon-encoded EGFP (full length TRS vector) in the presence of piggyBac transposase. F. Fluorometric quantitation of EGFP in liver lysates with EGFP transposon rAAV alone (short TIR) (n=3 male, n=3 female) or in combination with the piggyBac transposase rAAV (n=3 male, n=3 female). G. Quantitation of vector genome (vg) copy number per diploid liver cell with EGFP transposon rAAV alone (short TIR) or in combination with the piggyBac transposase rAAV. H. Relative EGFP protein expression per vector genome copy number (arbitrary units) with EGFP transposon rAAV alone (short TIR) or in combination with the piggyBac transposase rAAV. Dot plots in panels C to H show mean values. EGFP transposon-encoding vector alone and in combination with the piggyBac transposase-encoding vector are indicated by open and closed dots, respectively. For statistical comparison of two experimental groups, the two-tailed Student's unpaired t-test was used: *P<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.001.

FIG. 4. Experimental design for testing phenotype correction following co-delivery of the OTC-encoding transposon-transgene vector and the piggyBac transposase vector, in the spf^(ash) mouse model of OTC deficiency.

FIG. 5. A. Representative images of liver sections showing widespread OTC activity (dark brown stain) in mice receiving both the OTC-encoding transposon-transgene vector and the piggyBac transposase vector (right panel; 66±5% gene-modified cells), compared with mice that received OTC-encoding transposon-transgene vector alone (left panel; 1±0.2% gene-modified cells). B. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis of mice receiving the OTC-encoding transposon-transgene vector alone or in combination with the piggyBac transposase vector, followed by knockdown of residual endogenous OTC activity at adulthood. C. OTC enzymatic activity in liver lysates presented as fold-difference over wild-type (wt). D. Quantitation of vector genome (vg) copy number per diploid liver cell. E. Relative mOTC mRNA and F. protein expression per vector genome copy number (arbitrary units). Dot plots in panels C to F show mean values. OTC transposon-encoding vector alone and in combination with the piggyBac transposase-encoding vector are indicated by open and closed dots, respectively. For statistical comparison of two experimental groups, the two-tailed Student's unpaired t-test was used: *P<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.001; ****P<0.0001.

FIG. 6. Experimental design for testing phenotype correction following co-delivery of the ASS-encoding transposon-transgene vector and the piggyBac transposase vector, in the citrullinaemic mouse model of ASS deficiency.

FIG. 7. A. ASS-deficient pups treated with ASS-encoding transposon-transgene vector and the piggyBac transposase vector and wild-type litter mate at 10 days of age (left panel), and treated ASS-deficient adult (8 week old) mouse (right panel). B. Microscopic analysis of hair strands from a wild-type (wt) and treated adult mutant (mut) mouse. Scale bar, 25 μm. C. Plasma urinary orotic acid in wild-type/heterozygous (open symbols) and treated mutant adult mice (closed symbols). D. ASS enzyme activity in liver lysate from wild-type (wt) and heterozygous (het) males and females and treated mutant (ASS−/−) adult mice. E. Localisation of ASS protein in liver sections by immunohistochemistry, co-localised with glutamine synthetase (darkest stained cells) to identify the hepatic central veins. Representative histological images from a wild-type control liver (left) and a treated mutant mouse liver (right). Scale bar, 50 μm. Dot plots in panels C and D show mean values. For statistical comparison of two experimental groups, the two-tailed Student's unpaired t-test was used: **P<0.01; ****P<0.0001.

FIG. 8. Experimental design for testing phenotype correction following co-delivery of the hABCB4-encoding transposon-transgene vector and the piggyBac transposase vector, in mouse model of progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 3 (PFIC3).

FIG. 9. A. Homozygous neonates (Abcb4^(−/−)) that received a single therapeutic injection of rAAV-piggyBac transposon (with short TRS) encoding human ABCB4 (rAAV.pB.hABCB4), co-administered with vector encoding piggyBac tranposase (rAAV.pBase) had stably increased mean biliary phosphatidylcholine (PC) concentrations at 4, 8, 12 and 16 weeks of age, compared to untreated controls and those that did not receive concomitant rAAV.pBase. B. Homozygotes treated at birth had minimal evidence of liver pathology on representative histology images at early (4 weeks) and late (16 weeks) analysis time-points. Portal tracts (marked with asterisks) of treated mice are normal, in contrast with those of untreated controls exhibiting periportal inflammation and features of biliary obstruction. Infiltration of inflammatory cells also extends between portal tracts of untreated controls in the haemotoxylin and eosin (H & E) stained images (arrow) and increased fibrosis bridges portal tracts in Sirius red stained images, most noticeably at 16 weeks in the untreated controls (arrowhead). Scale bar=50 μm.

The present specification contains nucleotide sequence information prepared using the programme PatentIn Version 3.5, presented herein in a Sequence Listing.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Throughout this specification and the claims which follow, unless the context requires otherwise, the word “comprise”, and variations such as “comprises” or “comprising”, will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps, but not the exclusion of any other element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps.

The articles “a” and “an” are used herein to refer to one or to more than one (i.e., to at least one) of the grammatical object of the article. By way of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element.

As used herein the term “derived” in the context of an AAV-derived or transposon-derived nucleotide sequence means that the sequence corresponds to, originates from, or otherwise shares significant sequence homology with a sequence from an AAV or a transposon. Those skilled in the art will also understand that by being “derived” from an AAV or transposon, the sequence need not be physically constructed or generated from a particular AAV or transposon, but may be chemically synthesised or generated by other molecular biology techniques known in the art.

As used herein, the term “transgene” refers to exogenous DNA or cDNA encoding a gene product. The gene product may be an RNA, peptide or protein. In addition to the coding region for the gene product, the transgene may include or be associated with one or more elements to facilitate or enhance expression, such as a promoter, enhancer(s), response element(s), repoerter element(s), insulator element(s), polyadenlyation signal(s) and/or other functional elements. Embodiments of the invention may utilize any known suitable promoter, enhancer(s), response element(s), repoerter element(s), insulator element(s), polyadenlyation signal(s) and/or other functional elements.

Suitable elements and sequences will be well known to those skilled in the art. The transgene integrates into the genome of a proliferating cell. The transgene may be foreign to the cell or may represent a gene the expression of which is otherwise absent or reduced in the proliferating cell in the absence of the introduction of the transgene.

It will be understood that as used herein the term “expression” may refer to expression of a polypeptide or protein, or to expression of a polynucleotide or gene, depending on the context. Expression of a polynucleotide may be determined, for example, by measuring the production of RNA transcript levels using methods well known to those skilled in the art. Expression of a protein or polypeptide may be determined, for example, by immunoassay using an antibody(ies) that bind with the polypeptide using methods well known to those skilled in the art.

In the context of this specification, the term “activity” as it pertains to a protein, polypeptide or polynucleotide means any cellular function, action, effect or influence exerted by the protein, polypeptide or polynucleotide, either by a nucleic acid sequence or fragment thereof, or by the protein or polypeptide itself or any fragment thereof.

As used herein the term “effective amount” includes within its meaning a non-toxic but sufficient amount of an agent or compound to provide the desired therapeutic effect. The exact amount required will vary from subject to subject depending on factors such as the species being treated, the age and general condition of the subject, the severity of the condition being treated, the particular agent being administered and the mode of administration and so forth. Thus, it is not possible to specify an exact “effective amount”. However, for any given case, an appropriate “effective amount” may be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using only routine experimentation.

As used herein the terms “treating”, “treatment”, “preventing” and “prevention” and variations thereof refer to any and all uses that remedy a disease or one or more symptoms thereof, prevent the establishment of the disease, or otherwise prevent, hinder, retard, or reverse the progression of the disease or other undesirable symptoms in any way whatsoever. Thus the terms “treating” and “preventing” and the like are to be considered in their broadest context. For example, treatment does not necessarily imply that a patient is treated until total recovery. In conditions which display or a characterized by multiple symptoms, the treatment or prevention need not necessarily remedy, prevent, hinder, retard, or reverse all of said symptoms, but may prevent, hinder, retard, or reverse one or more of said symptoms.

As used herein the term “associated with” when used in the context of a disease “associated with” a proliferating cell means that the disease may result from, result in, be characterised by, or otherwise associated with cellular proliferation. The association between the disease and cellular proliferation may be direct or indirect and may be temporally separated.

The term “subject” as used herein refers to mammals and includes humans, primates, livestock animals (eg. sheep, pigs, cattle, horses, donkeys), laboratory test animals (eg. mice, rabbits, rats, guinea pigs), companion animals (eg. dogs, cats) and captive wild animals (eg. foxes, kangaroos, deer). Typically the mammal is human or a laboratory test animal. Even more typically, the mammal is a human.

As described and exemplified herein the inventors have generated recombinant AAV vectors and vector systems capable of inducing stable integration and high levels of expression of transgenes in proliferating cells. The inventors have also demonstrated the ability of these vectors and vector systems to correct phenotypes in mouse models of three different diseases of the paediatric liver.

Accordingly, provided herein are methods and vector systems for inducing stable transgene expression in a proliferating cell, the method comprising administering to the cell: (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising the transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell.

Also provided herein are methods and vector systems for stably integrating a transgene into the genome of a proliferating cell, the method comprising administering to the cell: (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising the transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell.

Also provided herein are methods and vector systems for treating or preventing a disease of, affecting, or associated with, a proliferating cell, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising a transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell, wherein said administration results in the stable integration and expression of the transgene to thereby treat the disease.

In particular embodiments of the present invention, the proliferating cell may be a liver cell, in particular a cell of a neonatal or juvenile liver, a bone marrow cell and/or a cancer cell. However those skilled in the art will appreciate that the present invention is applicable to any proliferating cell, and thus to any disease of, affecting, or associated with such proliferating cells. Non-limiting examples of paediatric liver diseases that may be treated or prevented in accordance with embodiments of the invention include OTC deficiency, ASS deficiency, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis, and genetic or metabolic liver diseases.

The vector systems of the invention may be used to integrate and express any transgene in the genome of a proliferating cell, and the scope of the present disclosure is not to be limited by reference to any particular transgene exemplified herein. The transgene may be any gene the expression of which it is desirable to induce in the proliferating cell. The transgene may be foreign to the proliferating cell. The transgene may be a gene the expression of which is absent or reduced in the proliferating cell in the absence of introduction of the transgene.

Accordingly, methods and vector systems of the invention find application in any circumstance or scenario in which it is desirable to stably integrate and express a transgene in a proliferating cell. Thus applications of the invention as a research tool in the investigation of gene expression, the development of, for example, cell lines and animal models, and alleviating the need to generate transgenic animals, are contemplated, in addition to the application of the invention to the treatment and prevention of diseases of, affecting, or associated with proliferating cells such as those of the neonatal or juvenile liver or bone marrow.

The transposase may be delivered to a proliferating cell in the form of a polypeptide, or a polynucleotide encoding the transposase. In a particular embodiment, the transposase is delivered using a vector comprising a polynucleotide encoding the transposase, optionally flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions. However those skilled in the art will recognise that the transposase may be delivered in any suitable form and by any suitable means so as to allow for expression of the transposase in the cell for a sufficient period of time and in sufficient amount to integrate the transgene or transgene cassette from the first rAAV vector into the genome of the proliferating cell. It will therefore be appreciated that transient expression of the transposase is required to prevent remobilization (excision) of integrated elements. Accordingly, the transposase may be delivered to the cell as mRNA encoding the transposase enzyme, or means of eliminating transposase enzyme from the cell may be employed, although any means of achieving transient transposase expression is contemplated.

Optionally polynucleotides administered to proliferating cells, encoding the transposase and/or the transgene, may be operably linked to a promoter. Thus, typically the vectors of the present invention are expression vectors capable of directing the transcription of the DNA sequence of the polynucleotide contained in the vector. The vector may include other expression control and processing sequences such as, for example, enhancers, internal ribosome entry sites, 2A elements, translation initiation (e.g. Kozak) sequences, polyadenylation signals and transcription termination sequences.

The promoter operably linked to the transposase and/or the transgene may be a “ubiquitous” promoter active in essentially all cells of the host organism (e.g. the beta-actin or cytomegalovirus promoters) or may be a promoter with expression more or less specific to the target cells (albumin promoter). Thus, the promoter may be a tissue-specific promoter that is only (or predominantly) active in cells of the desired tissue or organ. Thus, in particular embodiments the promoter may be one that is active primarily in the hepatic system. The specificity may be absolute or relative. Similarly, the promoter may be specific for particular cell types, including for example hepatocytes, Kupffer cells or endothelial cells. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that a tissue-specific promoter for use in an AAV vector in accordance with the invention may be selected from any of the known tissue-specific promoters. In an exemplary embodiment a suitable liver-specific promoter is the human alpha-1 antitrypsin promoter.

AAVs of any known serotype may be used in deriving the rAAV vectors of the invention, such as AAV1, AAV2, AAV3, AAV4, AAV5, AAV6, AAV7, AAV8, AAV9, AAV10, AAV11 and AAV12, and subtypes thereof. Exemplary AAVs include AAV2 and AAV8. In exemplary embodiments described herein the AAV inverted terminal repeat sequences are derived from AAV2, and comprise the nucleotide sequences set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 (ITR1) and/or SEQ ID NO:2 (ITR2), or functionally equivalent fragments thereof. The selection of the most appropriate AAV may be based on various factors including for example the target cell or cell type, and the identity or size of the transgene. The skilled addressee can make the selection without undue experimentation.

Those skilled in the art will also appreciate that while exemplified in relation to the piggyBac transposon, the methods and systems of the present invention may employ sequences derived from any suitable transposon. By way of example the transposon may be a member of the piggyBac superfamily or the Tc1/mariner superfamily (including for example the Sleeping Beauty transposon). The most appropriate transposon to be employed may be selected depending on the application of the invention, the target cell or cell type, the identity of the transgene and the disease to be treated or prevented. The skilled addressee can make the selection without undue experimentation. In exemplary embodiments described herein the transposon-transgene vectors comprise terminal repeat sequences derived from the piggyBac transposon, which sequences comprise the nucleotide sequences set forth SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, SEQ ID NO:5 and/or SEQ ID NO:6, or functionally equivalent fragments thereof. Similarly, the transposase may be the piggyBac transposase encoded by the nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:7, or a variant or derivative thereof.

The various polynucleotide and polypeptide sequences used in the methods and vectors of the invention, including inter alia AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions, transposon-derived inverted terminal repeats, transposase sequences and transgene sequences may be natural, recombinant or synthetic and may be obtained by purification from a suitable source or produced by standard recombinant DNA techniques such as those well known to persons skilled in the art, and described in, for example, Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: a Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference).

In embodiments in which a first rAAV vector comprising the transgene and a second vector comprising a polynucleotide encoding the transposase are co-administered to the proliferating cell, the ratio of the first vector to the second vector may be between about 50:1 to about 1:50, between about 40:1 to 1:40, between about 30:1 to 1:30, between about 20:1 to 1:20, between about 10:1 to 1:10 or between about 5:1 to 1:5. In an exemplary embodiment the ratio of the first vector to the second vector is about 10:1.

The present invention contemplates the delivery of vectors and other molecules to proliferating cells by any suitable means. For administration to subjects requiring treatment, vectors and other molecules are typically administered in the form of pharmaceutical compositions, which compositions may comprise one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, excipients or diluents. Such compositions may be administered in any convenient or suitable route such as by parenteral (e.g. subcutaneous, intraarterial, intravenous, intramuscular), oral (including sublingual), nasal or topical routes. In circumstances where it is required that appropriate concentrations of the vectors and molecules are delivered directly to the site in the body to be treated, administration may be regional rather than systemic. Regional administration provides the capability of delivering very high local concentrations of the vectors and molecules to the required site and thus is suitable for achieving the desired therapeutic or preventative effect whilst avoiding exposure of other organs of the body to the vectors and molecules and thereby potentially reducing side effects.

It will be understood that the specific dose level of a composition of the invention for any particular subject will depend upon a variety of factors including, for example, the activity of the specific agents employed, the age, body weight, general health and diet of the individual to be treated, the time of administration, rate of excretion, and combination with any other treatment or therapy. Single or multiple administrations can be carried out with dose levels and pattern being selected by the treating physician. A broad range of doses may be applicable. Considering a patient, for example, from about 0.1 mg to about 1 mg of agent may be administered per kilogram of body weight per day. Dosage regimens may be adjusted to provide the optimum therapeutic response. For example, several divided doses may be administered daily, weekly, monthly or other suitable time intervals or the dose may be proportionally reduced as indicated by the exigencies of the situation.

Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or diluents are demineralised or distilled water; saline solution; vegetable based oils such as peanut oil, safflower oil, olive oil, cottonseed oil, maize oil, sesame oil, arachis oil or coconut oil; silicone oils, including polysiloxanes, such as methyl polysiloxane, phenyl polysiloxane and methylphenyl polysolpoxane; volatile silicones; mineral oils such as liquid paraffin, soft paraffin or squalane; cellulose derivatives such as methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose or hydroxypropylmethylcellulose; lower alkanols, for example ethanol or iso-propanol; lower aralkanols; lower polyalkylene glycols or lower alkylene glycols, for example polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol or glycerin; fatty acid esters such as isopropyl palmitate, isopropyl myristate or ethyl oleate; polyvinylpyrridone; agar; carrageenan; gum tragacanth or gum acacia, and petroleum jelly. Typically, the carrier or carriers will form from 10% to 99.9% by weight of the compositions.

The present invention contemplates combination therapies, wherein vectors and molecules as described herein are coadministered with other suitable agents that may facilitate the desired therapeutic or prophylactic outcome. By “coadministered” is meant simultaneous administration in the same formulation or in two different formulations via the same or different routes or sequential administration by the same or different routes. By “sequential” administration is meant a time difference of from seconds, minutes, hours or days between the administration of the agents. Administration may be in any order.

The reference in this specification to any prior publication (or information derived from it), or to any matter which is known, is not, and should not be taken as an acknowledgment or admission or any form of suggestion that that prior publication (or information derived from it) or known matter forms part of the common general knowledge in the field of endeavor to which this specification relates.

The present invention will now be described with reference to the following specific examples, which should not be construed as in any way limiting the scope of the invention.

Examples Example 1—AAV/Transposase Vector Constructs

Transposon-donor vectors and a piggyBac Transposase vector were constructed using the recombinant adeno-associated viral vector (rAAV) system. The hybrid AAV/transposase system was subsequently used (see Examples 2 to 4) to demonstrate phenotype correction in animal models with genetic metabolic disease phenotypes. These included the spf^(ash) mouse model of ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) deficiency and the citrullinaemic mouse model of argininosuccinate synthetase (ASS) deficiency (both urea cycle disorders), and the PFIC3 mouse model (ABCB4 deficiency) of progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis. Each of these disease phenotypes presents early in life, in neonates or juveniles.

The coding sequence of piggyBac transposase was amplified by PCR from pCAG-PBase. The piggyBac transposase vector was constructed by inserting the coding region of the piggyBac transposase into a rAAV2 genome under the transcriptional control of a liver-specific promoter (pAAV2-LSP1.EGFP), replacing the EGFP coding sequence to produce pAAV2-LSP1.PBase (FIG. 1A). To construct the transposon-donor vectors, the 5′ (313 bp) and 3′ (230 bp) piggyBac transposon terminal inverted repeats (TIRs) were amplified by PCR from pPB-CA-GFP (Wolten et al., 2011, Methods Mol. Biol. 767:87-103) and inserted into pAAV2-LSP1.EGFP, immediately internal to the AAV2 inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) and flanking the transgene cassette. The resulting vector construct was designated pAAV2-LSP1.EGFP-TIR (FIG. 1B).

The piggyBac terminal repeat sequences used were either full length (TRS I, 313 bp, SEQ ID NO:3; and TRS II, 230 bp, SEQ ID NO:4) or shortened forms (TRS I, 67 bp, SEQ ID NO:5; and TRS II, 40 bp, SEQ ID NO:6). The genes expressed by the transposon-donor transgene cassettes included enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) (FIG. 1B), murine ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC), murine argininosuccinate synthetase (ASS) and human ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 4 (ABCB4) (FIG. 1C). To produce the therapeutic transposon vector constructs pAAV2-LSP1.mOTC-TIR (Example 3) and pAAV2-LSP1.mASS-TIR (Example 4), the EGFP cDNA in pAAV2-LSP1.EGFP-TIR was replaced with the cDNA for either murine ornithine transcarbamylase (mOTC) (NM 008769.3) or argininosuccinate synthetase (mASS) (NM 007494).

The various component sequences of the vectors constructed are identified below in Table 1 and the nucleotide sequences given in the Sequence Listing appearing at the end of the specification.

TABLE 1 Nucleotide sequences used in vector construction Name Description SEQ ID NO: AAV2 ITR1 AAV2-derived inverted terminal repeat 1. 181 bp 1 AAV2 ITR2 AAV2-derived inverted terminal repeat 2. 181 bp 2 TRS I PiggyBac transposon terminal repeat sequence I. 3 313 bp TRS II PiggyBac transposon terminal repeat sequence II. 4 230 bp TRS I (short) PiggyBac transposon terminal repeat sequence I- 5 shortened (Meir et al., 2011, BMC Biotechnol 11:28). 67 bp TRS II (short) PiggyBac transposon terminal repeat sequence II- 6 shortened (Meir et al., 2011, BMC Biotechnol 11:28). 40 bp PiggyBac PBase Coding region of PiggyBac transposase. 1785 bp 7 EGFP Coding region of enhanced GFP. 720 bp 8 mOTC Coding region of murine OTC gene. 1066 bp 9 mASS Coding region of murine ASS gene. 1239 bp 10 hABCB4 var A Coding region of codon optimised human ABCB4 11 transcript variant A. 3849 bp hApoE enhancer Human apolipoprotein E enhancer. 327 bp 12 hApoE-HCR Human apolipoprotein E hepatic control region 13 enhancer (derived from apolipoprotein E enhancer above). 192 bp hAAT promoter Human alpha-1 antitrypsin promoter. 397 bp 14 hAAT* promoter Truncated human alpha-1 antitrypsin promoter. 254 15 bp PRE Woodchuck post-regulatory element. 589 bp 16 bGH polyA Bovine growth hormone polyadenylation signal. 17 276 bp SV40 polyA Simian virus 40 polyadenylation signal. 134 bp 18 Kozak Kozak sequence. 7 bp (CGCCACC) —

The vector constructs used in the present study comprised the above sequences constructed as follows:

piggyBac Transposase Vector (SEQ ID NO:19)

AAV2 ITR1

hApoE enhancer (two copies)

hAAT promoter

Kozak

piggyBac PBase

PRE

bGH polyA

AAV2 ITR2

EGFP vector (SEQ ID NO:20)

AAV2 ITR1

TRS I

hApoE enhancer (two copies)

hAAT promoter

Kozak

EGFP

PRE

bGH polyA

TRS II

AAV2 ITR2

(A smaller version of this vector was also constructed using: the TRS I (short) and TRS II (short) sequences in place of TRS I and TRS II; a single copy of hApoE-HCR in place of two copies of hApoE enhancer; the hAAT* promoter in place of hAAT; and SV40 polyA in place of bGH polyA)

mOTC Vector (SEQ ID NO:21)

AAV2 ITR1

TRS I

hApoE enhancer (two copies)

hAAT promoter

Kozak

mOTC

PRE

bGH polyA

TRS II

AAV2 ITR2

mASS Vector (SEQ ID NO:22)

AAV2 ITR1

TRS I

hApoE enhancer (two copies)

hAAT promoter

Kozak

mASS

PRE

bGH polyA

TRS II

AAV2 ITR2

hABCB4 Vector (SEQ ID NO:23)

AAV2 ITR1

TRS I (short)

hApoE-HCR

hAAT* promoter

Kozak

hABCB4 varA (codon optimised)

PRE

SV40 polyA

TRS II (short)

AAV2 ITR2

Vector constructs were pseudoserotyped with liver-tropic vector capsids (AAV8 or AAVrh10), and viral particles were produced in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells by standard techniques. HEK293 cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (Gibco, Invitrogen, Grand Island, N.Y., USA) supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum (JRH Biosciences, Lenexa, Kans., USA) and 1% (w/v) L-glutamine (Gibco, Invitrogen) and maintained at 37° C. in a humidified 5% CO₂-air atmosphere. Vector genome titres were assigned by real-time quantitative PCR targeting the WPRE sequence as previously described (Cunningham et al., 2011, Mol. Ther. 19:854-859) or the EGFP transgene using the protocol as described for determining vector copy number (see below).

DNA was extracted from liver using standard phenol/chloroform and ethanol precipitation methods (Sambrook et al., 1989, Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press) Vector copy number of the transposon rAAVs was determined using the Quantitect Sybr Green Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif., USA) and the following oligonucleotide sets targeting the relevant transgene: EGFP-F/EGFP-R, OTC-F/OTC-R and ASS-F/ASS-R. Vector copy number of the piggyBac transposase rAAV was determined using the Takara Sybr Premix Ex Taq Kit (Cat#RR420A) and oligonucleotides PB-F/PB-R. The PCR reactions were normalized using the Quantitect Sybr Green Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif., USA) and oligonucleotide set GAPDH-F/GAPDH-R. Each reaction contained 100-150 ng of genomic DNA. Standards were prepared from linearized plasmid of the relevant vector, diluted in a background of 100-150 ng human genomic liver DNA per reaction (see Snyder et al., 1996, in Dracopoli et al. (eds.) Protocols in Human Genetics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: Chichester, UK pp 12.0.1-12.1.24).

Example 2—Stable Expression of Hybrid AAV/Transposase Constructs in Mice

The ability of the AAV/transposase vector systems described in Example 1 to stably integrate and express a transgene in a host genome was determined using transposon-donor vectors encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) administered to C3H and FVB.129P2-Abcb4^(tm1Bor) mice. Animals were housed in a temperature-controlled environment with 12-hour light/dark cycles with water and standard rodent chow (18.9% (wt/wt) protein; Specialty Feeds, Glen Forrest, Australia) supplied ad libitum. All experimental procedures were evaluated and approved by the institutional Animal Care and Ethics Committee. The experimental design is outlined in FIG. 2. Four mice were used for each group. Constructs were administered by injection via the intraperitoneal route in 20 μL volumes (diluted in PBS with calcium and magnesium) in newborn mice, at vector doses of 5×10¹⁰ vg/mouse for the transposase vector, and 1×10¹¹-5×10¹¹ vg/mouse for the transposon-transgene donor vector. Transposon-donor vectors encoding EGFP with either full length or short transposase recognition sites were co-administered with vector-encoded piggyBac transposase at days 0-1. Mice were sacrificed at week 3, 4 or 8, liver taken and EGFP expression observed via quantitative RT-PCR, immunofluorescence and fluorometry.

To measure mRNA expression, total RNA was extracted from 30-50 mg liver tissue using Trizol reagent (Life Technologies) according to the manufacturer's protocol and treated with DNAse I (Life Technologies). Reverse transcription using the SuperScript III First-Strand Synthesis SuperMix (Life Technologies) was used to generate cDNA. Quantitative RT-PCR was performed using the Quantitect Sybr Green Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif., USA) and the relevant oligonucleotide sets.

For detection of EGFP protein, livers were removed and fixed in 4% (wt/v) paraformaldehyde (PFA) in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), cryoprotected in 10-30% (wt/v) sucrose, and frozen in Optimum Cutting Temperature (OCT; TissueTek, Sakura Finetek USA, Torrance, Calif.) in isopentane/liquid Nitrogen for storage at −80° C. For co-localization of gene-modified cells with specific regions of liver architecture, the central veins were identified by immunohistochemical staining of glutamine synthetase. Frozen sections (5 μm) were permeabilized in methanol at −20° C. for 10 min, then reacted with a rabbit polyclonal anti-glutamine synthetase primary antibody (1/150 dilution; Abcam). Bound primary antibody was detected with an Alexa Fluor 594 donkey anti-rabbit secondary (1/1,000 dilution; Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). Sections were mounted in Immu-Mount (Thermo-Shandon) and imaged using an Olympus BX51 fluorescent microscope (Olympus, Centre Vally, Pa.). Direct EGFP fluorescence was detected using filters D480/30× (excitation) and D535/40m (emission), and Alexa Fluor 594 was detected using filters HQ560/55 (excitation) and HQ645/75 (emission). The percentage of transduced cells was determined by counting EGFP-positive cells in three random fields of view (10× magnification).

FIG. 3A shows widespread and numerous EGFP-positive hepatocytes following concomitant delivery of rAAV-encoded piggyBac transposase and transposon-transgene donor vectors compared with EGFP transposon vector alone. There was a >20-fold increase in the number of stably gene-modified hepatocytes from 2.4% to 50%, when the transposase expression vector was co-transfected with the EGFP transposon-containing vector (FIG. 3A).

Fluorometric analysis of liver lysates comprised homogenization of 50 mg liver in 750 uL Lysis Buffer: 0.5% Triton X-100, 0.01M Hepes, protease inhibitors; incubated 1 hr on ice then centrifuged at 14000 rpm for 20 min, 4° C. The total protein content of the lysate was measured (DC Protein assay; Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.) and individual samples adjusted to a final concentration of 0.5 mg/mL. A standard curve was prepared using recombinant EGFP protein (BioVision Research Products, Mountain View, Calif.). Equal volumes of samples and standards were loaded into black plastic 96-well plates (PerkinElmer, Boston, Mass.) and EGFP fluorescence quantitated on a VICTOR3 multilabel reader (PerkinElmer) using an excitation and emission filter set at 485 nm/535 nm. Fluorometry confirmed the observed higher levels of EGFP expression in EGFP transposon+transposase livers (FIG. 3B).

Interestingly, the increase in the number of stably gene-modified hepatocytes correlated with a 43-fold higher level of EGFP protein expression in liver lysates (FIG. 3B), and a relatively lower, but nevertheless impressive, 7-fold increase in vector genome copy number per diploid cell (FIG. 3C). This indicates significantly higher levels of EGFP mRNA (FIG. 3D) and protein (FIG. 3E) expression from transposed expression cassettes than from those stably maintained (presumably through integration) in the host cell as part of an AAV provirus.

The system was also tested using minimal piggyBac TIRs to increase the cargo capacity of the vector-encoded transposable element (FIG. 1B). Quantitatively and qualitatively equivalent data were obtained (FIG. 3A bottom panels and FIGS. 3F-H). The hybrid system performed similarly in male and female mice, delivering an impressive 70-fold and 103-fold increase in stable EGFP expression at 3 and 8 weeks of age, respectively, over the transposon vector delivered alone. The peri-venous and peri-portal zones of the hepatic lobule, which exhibit metabolic zonation, were targeted with equivalent efficiency.

Example 3—Gene Therapy in a Mouse Model of OTC Deficiency

The hybrid AAV/transposase constructs described in Example 1 were used to demonstrate phenotype correction in a mouse model of OTC deficiency (the spf^(ash) mouse model). Mice used were strain B6EiC3Sn a/A-Otc^(spf-ash)/J (provided by The Jackson Laboratory). The disease phenotype presents early in life in neonates or juveniles. As such, vector treatment was delivered to mice during the neonatal period. Constructs were administered by injection via the intraperitoneal route in 20 μL volumes (diluted in PBS with calcium and magnesium) in newborn mice (1-2 days), at vector doses of 5×10¹⁰ vg/mouse for the transposase vector, and 1×10¹¹ vg/mouse for the transposon-transgene donor vector. The experimental design is outlined in FIG. 4 with 12 mice receiving OTC-transposon-encoding AAV2/8 vector alone, and 12 mice receiving OTC transposon-encoding vector in combination with the piggyBac transposase-encoding AAV2/8 vector.

Liver sections from mice sacrificed at week 12 were analysed for OTC activity according to the method described in Ye et al., 1996, J Biol Chem 271:3639-3646. Liver sections showed widespread OTC activity in mice that had been administered both the OTC-encoding transposon-transgene vector and the piggyBac transposase vector (FIG. 5A, right panel), compared with mice that received OTC-encoding transposon-transgene vector alone (FIG. 5A, left panel). Mice treated in the newborn period with the rAAV OTC transposon alone (n=6 mice) developed severe hyperammonaemia, necessitating euthanasia, when background endogenous OTC activity was knocked down in early adulthood, while mice treated with both the OTC-expressing transposon and piggyBac transposase-encoding vectors (n=6 mice) survived, as did all cohorts injected with a rAAV expressing a non-specific (NS) shRNA (data not shown). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis using Prism (GraphPad software) was conducted of mice receiving the OTC-encoding transposon-transgene vector alone or in combination with piggyBac transposase vector, followed by knockdown of residual endogenous OTC activity at adulthood (FIG. 5B). Survival curves show, for each plotted time on the X axis, the portion of all individuals surviving as of that time. Survival correlated with the approximately 66-fold increase in the proportion of visibly OTC-positive hepatocytes in liver sections (FIG. 5A) and a 126-fold increase in OTC activity to massively supra-physiological levels (FIG. 5C). Consistent with data generated using the EGFP-encoding constructs, the increase in stably maintained vector genome copies was less dramatic (FIG. 5D), again indicating higher levels of transgene expression from transposed expression cassettes (FIGS. 5E and 5F).

For ammonia analysis, blood was collected by cardiac puncture into lithium heparin coated tubes and immediately centrifuged at 7,500×g for 5 minutes at 4° C. The plasma was frozen in liquid Nitrogen, and stored at −80° C. Ammonia was measured using the Ammonia Assay Kit (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, Mo.). All mice that received both the OTC-encoding transposon-transgene vector and the piggyBac transposase vector survived to the experimental endpoint (28 days), with plasma ammonia in the normal range (79.7±10.1 μM) while all mice receiving OTC-encoding transposon-transgene vector alone became unwell with elevated blood ammonia (954.3±173.3 μM) within 21 days of knockdown.

Example 4—Gene Therapy in Mouse Model of ASS Deficiency

The hybrid AAV/transposase constructs described in Example 1 were used to demonstrate phenotype correction in a neonatal lethal knock-out mouse model of ASS deficiency (the citrullinaemic mouse model). Mice used were strain B6; 12957-Ass1^(tm1Bay)/J (provided by The Jackson Laboratory). The disease phenotype presents early in life in neonates or juveniles. As such, vector treatment was delivered to mice during the perinatal period. Pregnant females were anesthetised using isoflurane inhalation anaesthesia. Buprenorphine (0.01 mg/kg) (Reckitt Benckiser, West Ryde, Australia) was given by subcutaneous injection as an analgesic. A laparotomy was performed to expose the uterus and constructs were administered to each foetus by injection via the intraperitoneal route in 5 μL volumes (diluted in PBS with calcium and magnesium) at embryonic day 15, at vector doses of 5×10¹⁰ vg/mouse for the transposase vector, and 1×10¹¹ vg/mouse for the transposon-transgene donor vector. The abdominal incision was then closed with sutures. A subcutaneous injection of ampicillin was given and mice were maintained on carprofen (0.14 mL/250 mL) given orally in drinking water for 7 days. Pups were born around E20, designated Day 0. From birth, pups were given a daily intra-peritoneal injection of L-arginine (1 g/kg) until adulthood, after which injections were reduced to 3 times weekly. Mice were monitored and sacrificed from 3 to 6 months of age. The experimental design is outlined in FIG. 6.

To determine the ability of the ASS-encoding transposon-transgene vector to correct the deficient phenotype in the mice, ammonia and orotic acid levels were analysed. For ammonia analysis, blood was collected into lithium heparin coated tubes by cardiac puncture and immediately centrifuged at 7,500×g for 5 minutes at 4° C. The plasma was frozen in liquid Nitrogen and stored at −80° C. Ammonia was measured using the Ammonia Assay Kit (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, Mo.). For orotic acid analysis, urine was collected over a 24 hour period on Whatman filter paper, eluted, and analyzed for orotic acid levels using Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Results were standardized against creatinine levels measured by the modified Jaffe reaction.

Phenotype correction in the ASS-deficient citrullinaemic mouse model was successful, with treated mice surviving to adulthood. Following a single prenatal dose, mutant mice not only survived the neonatal period, but remained healthy into adulthood, with one cohort maintained to 6 months of age. Adult treated mutant males and females were fertile and females carried pups to full-term. A sparse fur, abnormal skin and hair phenotype was evident from birth reminiscent of that observed in OTC-deficient Spf^(ash) mice, which improved from weaning age (FIGS. 7A and 7B). Orotic acid analysis showed that while normalisation of urinary orotic acid was variable among treated mice (n=15) (FIG. 7C), treated mice were protected against hyperammonaemia (Table 2).

ASS activity in the liver was determined using a method based on the conversion of ¹⁴C-aspartate to ¹⁴C-argininosuccinate (Kok et al., 2013, Mol. Ther. 21:1823-1831) All mice exhibited robust control of hyperammonaemia despite inter-mouse variability in AAS activity (FIG. 7D). Blood plasma from treated mice was analysed for the amino acids arginine, citrulline and ornithine. Quantitation plasma was deproteinized by ultrafiltration before addition of an internal standard, then analyzed by ion-exchange chromatography with postcolumn ninhydrin detection on a Biochrom 30 amino acid analyzer (Biochrom, Cambridge, UK). Table 2 shows that citrulline, arginine and ornithine were not normalised compared to wildtype controls, despite ammonia being maintained in the normal range.

TABLE 2 Biochemical analyses of plasma from treated ASS-deficient mice. Treated mice WT control mice Citrulline (μmol/L) 721 ± 103   78 ± 7.2 Arginine (μmol/L) 88 ± 19.6 138 ± 17.7 Ammonia (μmol/L) 71 ± 11.1 48 ± 6.7 Ornithine (μmol/L) 43 ± 4.29 66 ± 8.1

ASS protein expression and localization in treated mice was investigated by immunohistochemistry. Formalin-fixed liver sections were dewaxed and rehydrated in xylene and an ethanol gradient. Antigen retrieval was performed using 10 mmol/1 sodium citrate buffer pH 7.4, followed by blocking with 0.3% (v/v) hydrogen peroxidize for 30 minutes. Endogenous avidin and biotin were blocked using the avidin-biotin kit (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.), following the manufacturer's instructions. Sections were then blocked with 10% (v/v) donkey serum and stained with a goat antibody against mouse ASS (2.5 μg/ml, ab77590; Abcam, Cambridge, UK) overnight at 4° C. After washing in phosphate-buffered saline with 0.05% Tween-20, samples were incubated with a biotinylated donkey anti-goat secondary antibody (1.2 μg/ml, 705-065-147; Jackson ImmunoResearch, West Grove, Pa.) and detected with horseradish peroxidase, using the Vectastain Elite ABC (PK-7100, Vector Laboratories) and 3,3′-Diaminobenzidine liquid substrate (D6190, Sigma-Aldrich) as per manufacturer's instructions. To identify central veins, detection of glutamine synthetase was carried out using a rabbit polyclonal anti-glutamine synthetase primary antibody (1/150 dilution, ab16802; Abcam). Bound primary antibody was detected with a biotinylated donkey anti-rabbit secondary antibody (1/1000, 711-065-152, Jackson ImmunoResearch) and the Vectastain Elite ABC system (PK-7100, Vector Laboratories), followed by application of VIP substrate (Vector Laboratories) as per the manufacturer's instructions. Following completion of ASS and glutamine synthetase detection, sections were counterstained with hematoxylin, and mounted using Ultramount No. 4 (Fronine) Images were captured using a Zeiss Axio Imager.A1 microscope and Spot Imaging software.

As shown in FIG. 7E, ASS protein was localised in the liver of treated mice, co-localising with glutamine synthetase. The typical gradient of expression of endogenous ASS activity is shown in a wildtype untreated mouse (FIG. 7E, left panel), while widespread high levels of vector-encoded ASS protein can be seen in a mutant vector-treated mouse (FIG. 7E, right panel).

Example 5—Gene Therapy in Mouse Model of Progressive Intrahepatic Cholestasis

Progressive Familial Intrahepatic Cholestasis Type 3 (PFIC3) is a hereditary chronic liver disease with predominantly childhood onset. Affected individuals, carrying 2 mutated copies of the ABCB4 gene, have abnormal liver bile production with absent biliary phosphatidylcholine. Approximately 50% of all patients require liver transplantation at an average age of 7.5 years. (Jacquemin, 2012, Clinics and Research in Hepatology and Gastroenterology 36 Suppl 1:S26-35). The Abcb4-knockout mouse model shows progressive liver pathology with early onset, which recapitulates the PFIC3 liver disease phenotype.

The inventors used this mouse model to demonstrate correction of the liver disease phenotype using the hybrid rAAV-piggyBac transposon system (FVB.129P2-Abcb4^(tm1Bor)/J, provided by The Jackson Laboratory). The disease phenotype presents early in life in neonates or juveniles. As such, vector treatment was delivered to mice during the neonatal period. Constructs were administered by injection via the intraperitoneal route in 20 uL volumes (diluted in PBS with calcium and magnesium) in newborn mice, at vector doses of 5×10¹⁰ vg/mouse for the transposase vector, and 5×10¹¹ vg/mouse for the transposon-transgene donor vector. The experimental design is outlined in FIG. 8.

The piggyBac transposon developed for these sets of experiments encoded a codon-optimised human ABCB4 sequence (SEQ ID NO:11) with short transposon recognition sites (SEQ ID NO:5 and SEQ ID NO:6) flanking the expression cassette, inside the AAV2 inverted terminal repeat sequences (SEQ ID NO:1 and SEQ ID NO:2).

A commercial colormetric assay was used to quantify biliary phosphatidylcholine (EnzyChrom™ Phospholipid Assay Kit, BioAssay Systems). To obtain bile for this analysis, bile was aspirated directly from the gallbladder in mice that had been fasted for at least 4 hours, performed as part of the termination procedure. Histology was performed on 4 μm liver sections that were formalin-fixed and embedded in paraffin. H+E and Sirius red stains were performed by the Histology Unit at Westmead Millennium Institute.

As shown in FIG. 9, mice that received a single therapeutic injection of the hABCB4-encoding transposon-transgene donor vector co-administered with the piggyBac transposase vector, had significantly raised phosphatidylcholine concentrations in bile and absence of liver pathology, compared with untreated control homozygotes. 

1. A method for stably integrating a transgene into the genome of a proliferating cell and/or inducing stable transgene expression in a proliferating cell, the method comprising administering to the cell: (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising the transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell.
 2. A method according to claim 1, wherein the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell facilitates or induces the stable transgene expression. 3-4. (canceled)
 5. A method according to claim 1, wherein the transgene and flanking transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences form a transposon-transgene cassette, optionally comprising one or more further sequences or genetic elements including, for example, a promoter, enhancer, post-regulatory element and/or polyadenylation signal sequence.
 6. A method according to claim 1, wherein the transgene is operably linked to a promoter.
 7. A method according to claim 6, wherein the promoter is a tissue-specific promoter.
 8. (canceled)
 9. A method according to claim 1, wherein the transposase is provided to the proliferating cell in a form so as to allow transient expression of the transposase in the cell.
 10. A method according to claim 9, wherein the transposase is administered to the proliferating cell in the form of mRNA.
 11. A method according to claim 1, wherein the transposase is administered to the proliferating cell via a second rAAV vector comprising a polynucleotide encoding the transposase, optionally operably linked to a suitable promoter, and optionally flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions.
 12. A method according to claim 11, wherein the promoter is a tissue-specific promoter.
 13. (canceled)
 14. A method according to claim 1, wherein the AAV sequences used in the rAAV vector(s) are derived from AAV2 or AAV8.
 15. (canceled)
 16. A method according to claim 1, wherein the transposase is the piggyBac transposase, and the transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences are derived from the piggyBac transposon.
 17. A method according to claim 1, wherein the proliferating cell is a rapidly proliferating cell.
 18. (canceled)
 19. A method according to claim 17, wherein the proliferating cell is from a neonatal or juvenile liver.
 20. A method according to claim 1, wherein the proliferating cell is a disease cell.
 21. (canceled)
 22. A method according to claim 1, for the treatment of paediatric liver diseases.
 23. A method for treating a disease of, affecting, or associated with, a proliferating cell, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising a transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell, wherein said administration results in the stable integration and expression of the transgene to thereby treat the disease.
 24. (canceled)
 25. A method according to claim 23, wherein the disease is associated with the deficiency of one or more gene products in the proliferating cell, and wherein expression of the transgene normalises production and activity of the deficient gene product.
 26. A method according to claim 23, wherein the disease is a paediatric liver disease, a bone marrow disease or a cancer.
 27. A method according to claim 26, wherein the paediatric liver disease is selected from OTC deficiency, ASS deficiency and progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis.
 28. A method according to claim 27, wherein the progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis is progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type
 3. 29. A method according to claim 27, wherein: (i) when the disease is OTC deficiency the transgene comprises a polynucleotide encoding ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC); (ii) when the disease is ASS deficiency the transgene comprises a polynucleotide encoding argininosuccinate synthetase (ASS); or (iii) when the disease is progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis the transgene comprises a polynucleotide encoding ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 4 (ABCB4). 30-31. (canceled)
 32. A transgene delivery and expression system for inducing stable transgene expression in a proliferating cell or for treating a disease of, affecting, or associated with, a proliterating cell, wherein the system comprises (i) a recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector comprising the transgene flanked by transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences, which sequences are in turn flanked by AAV-derived inverted terminal repeat regions; and (ii) a source of a transposase that recognises said transposon-derived inverted terminal repeat sequences and directs the genomic integration of the transgene into the genome of the proliferating cell. 33-35. (canceled) 